500,000 B.CPeople migrate to Britain from Europe.
6,500 B.CSeas rise, cutting Britain off from mainland Europe
c.5000 B.CNeolithic (new stone age) Period begins; first evidence of farming appears; stone axes, antler combs, pottery in common use.
3000 B.CNew Stone Age begins: farming people arrive from Europe.
First stone circles erected.
c.2500-1500 B.CMost stone circles in British Isles erected during this period; pupose of the circles is uncertain, although most experts speculate that they had either astronomical or ritual uses.
c.2300 B.CConstruction begun on Britain’s largest stone circle at Avebury.
2100 B.C.Bronze Age begins
2000 B.CStonehenge built
c.1800-1200 B.CControl of society passes from priests to those who control the manufacture of metal objects.
c.1200-1000 B.CEmergence of a warrior class who now begins to take a central role in society.
c.1100 B.CGeoffrey of Monmouth suggests that Brutus arrives about this time.
c.1000 B.CEarliest hill-top earthworks ("hillforts") begin to appear, also fortified farmsteads; increasing sophistication of arts and crafts, particularly in decorative personal and animal ornamentation.
750 B.CIron Age begins:
c.600 B.CIron replaces bronze, Iron Age begins; construction of Old Sarum begun.
c.150 B.CMetal coinage comes into use; widespread contact with continent.
c.100 B.CFlourishing of Carn Euny (Cornwall), an iron age village with interlocking stone court-yard houses; community features a "fogou," an underground chamber used, possibly, for storage or defense.
55 B.CJulius Caesar’s first invasion of Britain.
54 BC-43 ADJulius Caesar’s second invasion of Britain. British forces led, this time, by Cassivellaunus, a capable commander. Despite early Roman advances, British continued to harass the invaders, effectively. A "deal" with the Trinovantes (tribal enemies of Cassivellaunus), and the subsequent desertion of other British tribes, finally guaranteed the Roman victory. Caesar’s first two expeditions to Britain were only exploratory in nature, and were never intended to absorb Britain into the Roman sphere, at that time.
0Jesus Christ is Born in Bethlehem
5 A.DRome acknowledges Cymbeline, King of the Catuvellauni, as king of Britain
51 A.DCaratacus, British resistance leader, is captured and taken to Rome
61 A.DBoudicca, queen of the Iceni, led uprising against the Roman occupiers, but is defeated and killed by the Roman governor, Suetonius Paulinus
63 A.DJoseph of Arimathea came to Glastonbury on the first Christian mission to Britain.
c.75-77 A.DThe Roman conquest of Britain is complete, as Wales is finally subdued; Julius Agricola is imperial governor (to 84)
122 A.DConstruction of Hadrian’s Wall ordered along the northern frontier, for the purpose of hindering incursions of the aggressive tribes there into Britannia
133 A.DJulius Severus, governor of Britain, is sent to Palestine to crush the revolt
184 A.DLucius Artorius Castus, commander of a detachment of Sarmatian conscripts stationed in Britain, led his troops to Gaul to quell a rebellion. This is the first appearance of the name, Artorius, in history and some believe that this Roman military man is the original, or basis, for the Arthurian legend. The theory says that Castus’ exploits in Gaul, at the head of a contingent of mounted troops, are the basis for later, similar traditions about "King Arthur," and, further, that the name "Artorius" became a title, or honorific, which was ascribed to a famous warrior in the fifth century.
197 A.DClodius Albinus, governor of Britain, another claimant to the Imperial throne, is killed by Severus at the battle of Lyon
208 A.DSeverus goes to defend Britain, and repairs Hadrian’s Wall
209 A.DSt. Alban, first British martyr, was killed for his faith in one of the few persecutions of Christians ever to take place on the island, during the governorship of Gaius Junius Faustinus Postumianus (there is controversy about the date of Alban’s martyrdom. Some believe it occurred during the persecutions of Diocletian, in the next century, although we opt for the earlier dating).
c.270 A.DBeginning (highly uncertain dating) of the "Saxon Shore" fort system, a chain of coastal forts in the south and east of Britain, listed in a document known as "Notitia Dignitatum."
287 A.DRevolt by Carausius, commander of the Roman British fleet, who rules Britain as emperor until murdered by Allectus, a fellow rebel, in 293
303 A.DDiocletian orders a general persecution of the Christians
306 A.DConstantine (later to be known as "the Great") was proclaimed Emperor at York.
311 A.DPersecution of Christians in the Roman Empire ends.
313 A.DEdict of Toleration proclaimed at Milan, in which Christianity is made legal throughout the empire.
314 A.DThree British bishops, for the first time, attend a continental church gathering, the Council of Arles.
324 A.DConstantine finally achieves full control over an undivided empire. He was a skillful politician who is popularly believed to have made Christianity the official religion of the empire because of his personal convictions. In actuality, that act was merely an expedient intended to harness the power of its "God" for the benefit of the state. He re-located the imperial headquarters to Byzantium, whose name he then changed to Constantinople.
Despite his outward enthusiasm for Christianity and its powerful God, he didn’t close many pagan temples during his reign. He did, however, strip them of their former wealth, which was then shifted to various Christian churches. This produced the result that many of the fledgling churches were put on a very firm financial footing and many of their members enjoyed great prosperity. The persecution of Christianity had stopped, perhaps, but its co-opting had just begun.
Early Christianity had no official hierarchies and functioned best as a series of small church groups worshipping with and caring for their own members while spreading Christ’s Gospel in their local areas. Constantine’s move created a top-heavy structure that would quickly depart from its original purity; a church beholden to the state, out of touch with the needs of its adherents and concerned only with its own comfort. Eusebius, the early Christian historian, has given us some additional insights into the motivations of the Emperor Constantine in his "Ecclesiastical History"
337 A.DConstantine received "Christian" baptism on his deathbed. Joint rule of Constantine’s three sons: Constantine II (to 340); Constans (to 350); Constantius (to 361)
360s A.DSeries of attacks on Britain from the north by the Picts, the Attacotti and the Irish (Scots), requiring the intervention of Roman generals leading special legions.
369 A.DRoman general Theodosius drives the Picts and Scots out of Roman Britain
383 A.DMagnus Maximus (Macsen Wledig), a Spaniard, was proclaimed Emperor in Britain by the island’s Roman garrison. With an army of British volunteers, he quickly conquered Gaul, Spain and Italy.
397 A.DThe Roman commander, Stilicho, comes to Britain and repels an attack by Picts, Irish and Saxons
402 A.DEvents on the continent force Stilicho to recall one of the two British legions to assist with the defense of Italy against Alaric and the Visigoths. The recalled legion, known as the Sixth Victrix, was said by Claudian (in "De Bello Gallico," 416) to be "that legion which is stretched before the remoter Britons, which curbs the Scot, and gazes on the tattoo-marks on the pale face of the dying Pict." The barbarians were defeated, this time, at battle of Pollentia.
403 A.DVictricius, Bishop of Rouen, visited Britain for the purpose of bringing peace to the island’s clergy, who were in the midst of a dispute, possibly over the Pelagian heresy.
405 A.DThe British troops, which had been recalled to assist Stilicho, were never returned to Britain as they had to stay in Italy to fight off another, deeper penetration by the barbarian chieftain, Radagaisus.
407 A.DIn place of the assassinated Marcus, Gratian was elevated "to the purple," but lasted only four months. Constantine III was hailed as the new emperor by Roman garrison in Britian. He proceeded to follow the example of Magnus Maximus by withdrawing the remaining Roman legion, the Second Augusta, and crossing over into Gaul to rally support for his cause. Constantine’s departure could be what Nennius called "the end of the Roman Empire in Britain. . ."
408 A.DWith both Roman legions withdrawn, Britain endures devastating attacks by the Picts, Scots and Saxons.
409 A.DProsper, in his chronicle, says, "in the fifteenth year of Honorius and Arcadius (409), on account of the languishing state of the Romans, the strength of the Britons was brought to a desperate pass." Under enormous pressure, Britons take matters into their own hands, expelling weak Roman officials and fighting for themselves.
410 A.DBritain gains "independence" from Rome. The Goths, under Alaric, sack Rome.
413 A.DPelagian heresy said to have begun, by Prosper (Tiro) of Aquitaine in his "Chronicle."
420-30 A.DPelagian heresy outlawed in Rome (418), but in Britain, enjoys much support from "pro-Celtic" faction. Traditionalists (pro-Romans) support Roman church. During this time, according to Prosper, Britain is ruled by petty "tyrants."
421 A.DHonorius issued a decree forbidding any Pelagians to come nearer to Rome than the one-hundredth mile marker.
c.432 A.DTraditional dating for the beginning of St. Patrick’s mission to Ireland
c.438 A.DProbable birth of Ambrosius Aurelianus, scion of the leading Romano-British family on the island.
440 - 450 A.DPeriod of civil war and famine in Britain, caused by ruling council’s weakness and inability to deal with Pictish invasions; situation aggravated by tensions between Pelagian/Roman factions. Vacated towns and cities in ruin. Migration of pro-Roman citizens toward west. Country beginning to be divided, geographically, along factional lines.
c.441 A.DGallic Chronicle records, prematurely, that "Britain, abandoned by the Romans, passed into the power of the Saxons."
c.445 A.DVortigern comes to power in Britain.
446 A.DBritons (probably the pro-Roman party) appeal to Aetius, Roman governor of Gaul, for military assistance in their struggle against the Picts and the Irish (Scots). No help could be sent, at this time, as Aetius had his hands full with Attila the Hun.
C. 446 A.DVortigern authorizes the use of Saxon mercenaries, known as foederati, for the defense of the northern parts against barbarian attack. To guard against further Irish incursions, Cunedda and his sons are moved from Manau Gododdin in northern Britain to northwest Wales
c.447 A.DBritons, aroused to heroic effort, "inflicted a massacre" on their enemies, the Picts and Irish, and were left in peace, for a brief time. Could this heroic effort have been led, again, by St. Germanus?
c.448 A.DDeath of St. Germanus in Ravenna. Civil war and plague ravage Britain.
c.450 A.DIn the first year of Marcian and Valentinian, Hengest arrives on shores of Britain with "3 keels" of warriors, and are welcomed by Vortigern. This event is known in Latin as the "adventus Saxonum," the coming of the Saxons.
c.452 A.DIncreasing Saxon settlement in Britain. Hengest invites his son, Octha, from Germany with "16 keels" of warriors, who occupy the northern lands, to defend against the Picts. Picts never heard from, again.
c.453 A.DIncreasing Saxon unrest. Raids on British towns and cities becoming more frequent.
c.457 A.DDeath of Vortigern. Vitalinus (Guitolinus) new leader of pro-Celtic Pelagian faction. Battle of Aylesford (Kent) in which Ambrosius, along with sons of Vortigern, Vortimer and Cateyrn, defeat Hengest for the first time.
c.458 A.DSaxon uprising in full-swing. Hengest finally conquers Kent, in southeastern Britain.
458 - 460 A.DFull-scale migration of British aristocrats and city-dwellers across the English Channel to Brittany, in northwestern Gaul (the "second migration"). British contingent led by Riothamus (perhaps a title, not a name), thought by some to be the original figure behind the legends of Arthur.
460 - 470 A.DAmbrosius Aurelianus takes full control of pro-Roman faction and British resistance effort; leads Britons in years of back-and-forth fighting with Saxons. British strategy seems to have been to allow Saxon landings and to then contain them, there.
c.465 A.DArthur probably born around this time.
c.466 A.DBattle of Wippedesfleot, in which Saxons defeat Britons, but with great slaughter on both sides. Mutual "disgust and sorrow" results in a respite from fighting "for a long time."
c.466-73 A.DPeriod of minimal Saxon activity. Refortification of ancient hillforts and construction of the Wansdyke possibly takes place during this time.
C. 469 A.DRoman emperor, Anthemius, appeals to Britons for military help against Visigoths. Reliable accounts by Sidonius Apolonaris and Jordanes name the leader of the 12,000 man British force, Riothamus. The bulk of the British force was wiped out in battle against Euric, the Visigothic king, and the survivors, including Riothamus, vanished and were never heard from, again.
c.470 A.DBattle of Wallop (Hampshire) where Ambrosius defeats Vitalinus, head of the opposing faction. Ambrosius assumes High-kingship of Britain.
473 A.DMen of Kent, under Hengest, move westward, driving Britons back before them "as one flees fire."
477 A.DSaxon chieftain, Aelle, lands on Sussex coast with his sons. Britons engage him upon landing but his superior force drives them into the forest (Weald). Over next nine years, Saxon coastal holdings are gradually expanded in Sussex.
c.480 A.DVita Germani, the Life of St. Germanus, written by a continental biographer, Constantius.
c.485-96 A.DPeriod of Arthur’s "twelve battles" during which he gains reputation for invincibility.
486 A.DAelle and his sons overreach their normal territory and are engaged by Britons at battle of Mercredesburne. Battle is bloody, but indecisive, and ends with both sides pledging friendship.
c.490 A.DHengest dies. His son, Aesc, takes over and rules for 34 years.
c.495 A.DCerdic and Cynric, his son, land somewhere on the south coast, probably near the Hampshire-Dorset border.
c.496 A.DBritons, under overall command of Ambrosius and battlefield command of the "war leader" Arthur, defeat Saxons at the Siege of Mount Badon.
c.496-550 A.DFollowing the victory at Mt. Badon, the Saxon advance is halted with the invaders returning to their own enclaves. A generation of peace ensues. Corrupt leadership, more civil turmoil, public forgetfulness and individual apathy further erode Romano-British culture over next fifty years, making Britain ripe for final Saxon "picking."
c.500-50 A.DSpread of Celtic monasticism throughout Europe
c.501 A.DThe Battle of Llongborth (probably Portsmouth), where a great British chieftain, Geraint, King of Dumnonia, was killed. Arthur is mentioned in a Welsh poem commemorating the battle.
508 A.DCerdic begins to move inland and defeats British king Natanleod near present-day Southampton.
c.515 A.DDeath of Aelle. Kingdom of Sussex passed to his son, Cissa and his descendents, but over time, diminished into insignificance.
519 A.DKingdom of the West Saxons (Wessex) founded with Cerdic its first ruler.
c.530-40 A.DMass migration of Celtic monks to Brittany (the "third migration").
c.534 A.DDeath of Cerdic. Cynric takes kingship.
c.540 A.DProbable writing of Gildas’ "De Excidio Britanniae."
c.542 A.DBattle of Camlann, according to Annales Cambriae. Death (or unspecified other demise) of Arthur (according to Geoffrey of Monmouth).
550 A.DSt. David takes Christianity to Wales
563 A.DIrish monk, St. Columba founds a monastery on island of Iona and begins conversion of the Picts to Christianity
c.570 A.DProbable death of Gildas.
584 A.DFoundation of the Anglo-Saxon kingdom of Mercia in England
597 A.DThe Roman brand of Christianity is brought to Britain for the first time by St. Augustine, the missionary sent from Pope Gregory to convert the Saxons. Augustine founded a monastery and the first church at Canterbury, and was proclaimed its first Archbishop.
633 A.DMercians under Penda defeat Northumbrians
642 A.DMercians under Penda again defeat the Northumbrians
655 A.DOswy, king of Northumbria, defeats and kills Penda of Mercia
664 A.DSynod of Whitby; Oswy abandons the Celtic Christian Church and accepts the faith of Rome: decline of the Celtic Church
731 A.DVenerable Bede, British monk, completes his history of the Church in England
735 A.DDeath of the Venerable Bede
757 A.DOffa, King of Mercia (to796): he builds Offa’s Dyke to keep out the Welsh
779 A.DOffa, King of Mercia, becomes King of all England
782 A.DCharlemagne summons the monk and scholar Alcuin of York to head the palace school at Aachen: revival of learning in Europe
793 A.DVikings invade Britain for the first time in a surprise attack on the monastic community at Lindisfarne (Holy Island).
796 A.DDeath of Offa: end of Mercian supremacy in England
802 A.DEgbert, King of Wessex (to839)
828 A.DEgbert of Wessex is recognized as overlord of other English kings
839 A.DAEthelwulf, son of Egbert, King of Wessex (to 858)
844 A.DKenneth MacAlpine, King of the Scots, conquers the Picts; founds a unified Scotland
858 A.DAEthelbald, eldest son of AEthelwulf, King of Wessex (to 860)
860 A.DAEthelbert, second son of AEthelwulf, King of Wessex (to 865)
865 A.DAEthelred I, third son of AEthelwulf, King of Wessex (to 871)
871 A.DThe Danes attack Wessex; are defeated by AEthelred at Ashdown
878 A.DAlfred decisively defeats the Danes at Edington; by the Peace of Wedmore, England is divided between Wessex in the south and the Danes in the north, the Danelaw
886 A.DAlfred captures London from the Danes
899 A.DEdward the Elder, King of Wessex (to 924)
901 A.DEdward the Elder takes the title "King of the Angles and Saxons"
913 A.DEdward the Elder recaptures Essex from the Danes
924 A.DAthelstan, son of Edward the Elder, becomes king of Wessex and effective ruler of most of England (to 939)
926 A.DAthelstan annexes Northumbria, and forces the kings of Wales, Strathclyde, the Picts, and the Scots to submit to him
937 A.DBattle of Brunanburh: Athelstan defeats alliance of Scots, Celts, Danes, and Vikings, and takes the title of "King of all Britain"
939 A.DEdmund, brother of Athelstan, King of England (to 946)
945 A.DDunstan becomes abbot of Glastonbury
946 A.DEdred, younger brother of Edmund, King of England (to 955); Dunstan is named his chief minister
955 A.DEdwy, son of Edmund, King of England (to 959)
956 A.DDunstan sent into exile by Edwy
957 A.DMercians and Northumbrians rebel against Edwy
959 A.DEdgar the Peaceful, younger brother of Edwy, King of England (to 975)
975 A.DEdward the Martyr, son of Edgar, King of England (to 978)
978 A.DEdward the Martyr murdered at Corfe Castle; AEthelred II, the Unready (ill-counselled), younger brother of Edward the Martyr, King of England (to 1016)
980 A.DThe Danes renew their raids on England attacking Chester and Southampton
991 A.DBattle of Maldon: Byrhtnoth of Essex defeated by Danish invaders; AEthelred II buys off the Danes with 10,000 pounds of silver (Danegeld)
992 A.DAEthelred makes a truce with Duke Richard I of Normandy
994 A.DDanes under Sweyn and Norwegians under Olaf Trygvesson sail up river Thames and besiege London; bought off by Aethelred
1003 A.DSweyn and an army of Norsemen land in England and wreak a terrible vengeance
1007 A.DAEthelred buys two years’ peace from the Danes for 36,000 pounds of silver
1012 A.DThe Danes sack Canterbury: bought off for 48,000 pounds of silver
1013 A.DSweyn lands in England and is proclaimed king; AEthelred flees to Normandy
1014 A.DThe English recall AEthelred II as King on the death of Sweyn; Canute retreats to Denmark
1015 A.DCanute again invades England; war between Danes and Saxons
1016 A.DEdmund Ironside, son of AEthelred II, King of England: he and Canute divide the kingdom, Canute holds the north and Edmund Wessex; Edmund is assassinated; Canute, King of England (to 1035)
1017 A.DCanute divides England into four earldoms
1019 A.DCanute marries Emma of Normandy, widow of AEthelred II
1035 A.DDeath of Canute: his possessions are divided; Harold I, Harefoot, becomes King of England (to 1040)
1040 A.DHardicanute, King of England (to 1042); he dies of drink
1042 A.DEdward the Confessor, son of AEthelred II, King of England (to 1066)
1051 A.DEarl Godwin exiled (until 1052): he returns with a fleet and wins back his power
1052 A.DEdward the Confessor founds Westminster Abbey, near London
1053 A.DDeath of Godwin: his son Harold succeeds him as Earl of Wessex
1055 A.DHarold’s brother Tostig becomes Earl of Northumbria
1063 A.DHarold and Tostig subdue Wales
1064 A.DHarold is shipwrecked in Normandy; while there, he swears a solemn oath to support William of Normandy’s claim to England
1065 A.DNorthumbria rebels against Tostig, who is exiled
1066 A.DHarold II is crowned king the day after Edward the Confessor dies. Tostig and Harold Hardraada of Norway invade England: Harold defeats them at the Battle of Stamford Bridge, killing both; Battle of Hastings: 19 days after battle of Stamford Bridge, William of Normandy lands at Pevensey, defeats and kills Harold; William I, the Conqueror, first Norman King of England (to 1087)
1067 A.DWork is begun on building the Tower of London.
1068 A.DThe Norman Conquest continues until 1069: William subdues the north of England (the "Harrying of the North" ): the region is laid waste
1072 A.DWilliam invades Scotland, and also receives the submission of Hereward the Wake.
1077 A.DHereward the Wake begins a Saxon revolt in the Fens of eastern England; Lanfranc, an Italian lawyer, becomes William’s formidable Archbishop of Canterbury. Lanfranc rebuilds Canterbury Cathedral and establishes the primacy of the see of Canterbury over York, but does not enforce clerical celibacy.
1080 A.DWilliam, in a letter, reminds the bishop of Rome that the King of England owes him no allegiance.
1086 A.DDomesday Book is completed in England
1087 A.DWilliam II, Rufus, King of England (to 1100); his elder brother, Robert, is Duke of Normandy
1093 A.DDonald Bane, King of Scots (to 1097), following the death of his brother, Malcolm III, in battle against the English
1097 A.DEdgar, second son of Malcolm Canmore, King of Scotland (to 1107); he defeats Donald Bane with the assistance of William II of England
1099 A.DCrusaders capture Jerusalem; Godfrey of Bouillon is elected King of Jerusalem
1100 A.DHenry I, youngest son of William the Conqueror, King of England (to 1135), following assassination of William Rufus
1106 A.DHenry I defeats his brother Rober, Duke of Normandy, at battle of Tinchebrai: Robert remains captive for life
1113 A.DFounding of the Order of St. John is formally acknowledged by the papacy
1114 A.DMatilda (Maud), daughter of Henry I of England marries Emperor Henry V
1118 A.DHugues de Payens founds the order of Knights of Templars
1120 A.DWilliam, heir of Henry I of England, is drowned in wreck of the "White Ship"
1129 A.DEmpress Matilda, widow of Henry V, marries Geoffrey the Handsome, Count of Anjou, nicknamed " Plantagenet "
1139 A.DMatilda lands in England
1141 A.DMatilda captures Stephen at the battle of Lincoln, and reigns disastrously as queen; she is driven out by a popular rising and Stephen restored
1148 A.DMatilda leaves England for the last time
1152 A.DMarriage of Louis VII of France and Eleanor of Aquitaine is annulled on grounds of blood relationship; Eleanor marries Henry of Anjou, allying Aquitaine to his lands of Anjou and Normandy, two months after her divorce
1153 A.DHenry of Anjou, son of Matilda, invades England and forces Stephen to make him heir to the English throne
1154 A.DHenry II, King of England (to 1189); he also rules more than half of France; Pope Adrian IV (to 1159) (Nicholas Breakspear, the only English pope)
1155 A.DHenry II appoints the Archdeacon of Canterbury, Thomas a Becket, as Chancellor
1159 A.DHenry II levies scutage, payment in cash instead of military service
1162 A.DBecket is appointed Archbishop of Canterbury and at once quarrels with Henry II over the Church’s rights
1164 A.DConstitutions of Clarendon; restatement of laws governing trial of ecclesiastics in England; Becket is forced to flee to France
1170 A.DBecket is reconciled with Henry II, returns to Canterbury; is murdered by four knights after Henry’s hasty words against him
1173 A.DRebellion of Henry’s eldest sons, Henry, Richard, and Geoffrey, supported by their mother, Eleanor of Aquitaine; Thomas a Becket canonized
1189 A.DRichard I, Coeur de Lion, eldest surviving son of Henry II, King of England (to 1199)
1191 A.DThe bodies of King Arthur and Guinevere were reported to have been exhumed from a grave at Glastonbury Abbey; Richard I conquers Cyprus and captures the city of Acre
1192 A.DRichard I captures Jaffa, makes peace with Saladin; on the way home he is captured by his enemy, Duke Leopold of Austria
1193 A.DLeopold hands Richard over to Emperor Henry VI, who demands ransom
1194 A.DRichard is ransomed and returned to England
1199 A.DJohn Lackland, youngest son of Henry II, King of England (to 1216)
1203 A.DJohn of England orders the murder of his nephew Arthur, Duke of Brittany
1207 A.DPope Innocent III appoints Stephen Langton Archbishop of Canterbury (Langton is the man who divided the books of the Bible into chapters); John refuses to let him take office
1208 A.DInnocent III lays England under interdict
1209 A.DCambridge University is founded in England; Innocent III excommunicates John for attacks on Church property
1213 A.DInnocent III declares John deposed; John resigns his kingship to the pope and receives it back as a holding from the Roman legate, thereby ending the interdict.
1215 A.DSigning of Magna Carta; English barons force John to agree to a statement of their rights
1216 A.DHenry III becomes king of England at age nine (to 1272)
1227 A.DHenry III begins personal rule in England
1256 A.DPrince Llewellyn sweeps English from Wales
1264 A.DSimon de Montfort and other English barons defeat Henry III at battle of Lewes
1265 A.DDe Montfort’s Parliament: burgesses from major towns summoned to Parliament for the first time; Henry III’s son Edward defeats and kills Simon de Montfort at battle of Evesham
1269 A.DRebuilding of Westminster Abbey begun by Henry III.
1272 A.DEdward I, King of England (to 1307)
1283 A.DEdward I defeats and kills Llewellyn, Prince of Wales, and executes Llewellyn’s brother David; conquest of Wales complete
1290 A.DEdward I expells all Jews from England
1291 A.DScots acknowledge Edward I of England as suzerain; he arbitrates in succession dispute
1295 A.DModel Parliament of Edward I : knights and burgesses from English shires and towns summoned. First representative parliament
1296 A.DEdward I of England deposes John Balliol from Scottish throne
1297 A.DBattle of Cambuskenneth: Scottish patriot William Wallace defeats English army
1298 A.DEdward I defeats Wallace at battle of Falkirk and reconquers Scotland
1301 A.DEdward I of England invests his baby son Edward as Prince of Wales
1305 A.DThe English capture and execute William Wallace
1306 A.DNew Scottish rebellion against English rule led by Robert Bruce. Robert I, the Bruce crowned King of Scotland (to 1329) at Scone
1307 A.DEdward I dies on march north to crush Robert Bruce. Edward II, King of England (to 1327)
1310 A.DEnglish barons appoint 21 peers, the Lords Ordainers, to manage Edward II’s household
1312 A.DOrder of Knights Templar abolished
1314 A.DBattle of Bannockburn: Robert Bruce defeats Edward II and makes Scotland independent
1326 A.DQueen Isabella and Roger Mortimer sail from France with an army to rebel against Edward II of England
1327 A.DParliament declares Edward II deposed, and his son accedes to the throne as Edward III. Edward II is hideously murdered, nine months later
1328 A.DCharles IV dies, ending the Capetian dynasty. Philip of Valois succeeds him as Philip VI.
1329 A.DEdward III of England does simple homage for Aquitaine (Guienne), but refuses to do liege homage.
1333 A.DEdward III invades Scotland on Balliol’s behalf and defeats the Scots at battle of Halidon Hill
1336 A.DEdward places an embargo on English exports of wool to Flanders.
1337 A.DPhilip declares Edward’s fiefs forfeit and begins harassing the frontiers of Aquitaine; Edward III, provoked by these attacks on his territories in France, declares himself king of France; "The Hundred Years’ War " begins (ends 1453)
1338 A.DTreaty of Koblenz: alliance between England and the Holy Roman Empire; Edward III formally claims the French crown.
1340 A.DNaval victory at Sluys gives England the command of the English Channel; English Parliament passes four statues providing that taxation shall be imposed only by Parliament
1340 A.DFrench troops commanded by Bertrand du Guesclin; Edward, the Black Prince, sacks Limoges
1346 A.DEdward III of England invades France with a large army and defeats an even bigger army under Philip VI at the Battle of CrÚcy
1347 A.DThe English capture Calais
1348 A.DEdward III establishes the Order of the Garter; Black Death (bubonic plague) reaches England
1351 A.DThe English remove the Pope’s power to give English benefices to foreigners
1353 A.DStatue of Praemunire: English Parliament forbids appeals to Pope
1356 A.DEdward the Black Prince, son of Edward III, defeats the French at the battle of Poitiers, capturing King John II
1358 A.DThe Jacquerie
1360 A.DPeace of Bretigny ends the first stage of the Hundred Years’ War. Edward III gives up claim to French throne
1369 A.DSecond stage of war between England and France begins
1372 A.DFrench troops recapture Poitou and Brittany; Naval battle of La Rochelle: French regain control of English Channel
1373 A.DJohn of Gaunt, Duke of Lancaster, son of Edward III, leads new English invasion of France
1374 A.DJohn of Gaunt returns to England and takes charge of the government; Edward III in his dotage, the Black Prince is ill
1375 A.DTruce of Bruges ends hostilities between England and France
1376 A.DThe Good Parliament in England, called by Edward the Black Prince, introduces many reforms of government; Death of Edward the Black Prince, aged 45; The Civil Dominion of John Wyclif, an Oxford don, calling for Church reforms
1377 A.DRichard II, son of the Black Prince, King of England (to 1399)
1381 A.DPeasants’ Revolt in England; John Wyclif, an Oxford theologian, publishes his "Confession", denying that the "substance" of bread and wine are miraculously changed during the Eucharist.
1382 A.DJohn Wyclif is expelled from Oxford because of his opposition to certain Church doctrines
1386 A.DJohn of Gaunt leads an expedition to Castile, which he claims in his wife’s name; fails 1388
1387 A.DGeoffrey Chaucer begins work on The Canterbury Tales
1389 A.DRichard II, aged 22, assumes power
1394 A.DRichard II leads expedition to subdue Ireland; returns to England 1395
1396 A.DRichard II marries the seven-year old Princess Isabella of France
1399 A.DDeath of John of Gaunt; Gaunt’s eldest son, Henry of Bolingbroke, lands in Yorkshire with 40 followers, and soon has 60,000 supporters: Richard II is deposed; Bolingbroke becomes Henry IV, King of England (to 1413)
1400 A.DRichard II murdered at Pontefract Castle; Owen Glendower proclaims himself Prince of Wales and begins rebellion
1401 A.DPersecution of Lollards for revolting against clergy.
1402 A.DHenry IV enters Wales in pursuit of Glendower
1403 A.DBattle of Shrewsbury; rebellion by the Percy family: Henry IV defeats and kills Harry "Hotspur" Percy
1406 A.DHenry, Prince of Wales, defeats Welsh
1413 A.DHenry V, King of England (to 1422)
1415 A.DHenry V invades France, and defeats the French at Agincourt
1416 A.DDeath of Owen Glendower
1420 A.DTreaty of Troyes
1422 A.DDeaths of Henry V of England and Charles VI of France; Henry VI, King of England (to 1461)
1424 A.DJohn, Duke of Bedford, regent for Henry VI of England, defeats the French at Cravant
1428 A.DHenry VI begins siege of Orleans
1429 A.DA French force, led by military commander Joan of Arc (Jeanne d’Arc), relieves the siege of Orleans; Charles VII crowned king of France at Rheims
1430 A.DBurgundians capture Jeanne d’Arc and hand her over to the English
1431 A.DJeanne d’Arc burned as a witch at Rouen; Henry VI of England crowned king of France in Paris
1453 A.DBordeaux falls to the French, Hundred Years’ War ends; England’s only French possession is Calais; In England, Henry VI becomes insane
1454 A.DRichard, Duke of York, is regent of England while Henry VI is insane; Printing with movable type is perfected in Germany by Johannes Gutenberg
1455 A.DHenry VI recovers. Richard of York is replaced by Somerset and excluded from the Royal Council; War of the Roses - civil wars in England between royal houses of York and Lancaster (until 1485); Battle of St. Albans. Somerset defeated and killed
1460 A.DBattle of Wakefield. Richard of York is defeated and killed; Earl of Warwick (the Kingmaker) captures London for the Yorkists; Battle of Northampton: Henry VI is captured by Yorkists
1461 A.DBattles of Mortimer’s Cross and Towton: Richard’s son, Edward of York, defeats Lancastrians and becomes king; Edward IV, King of England (to 1483)
1465 A.DHenry VI imprisoned by Edward IV
1466 A.DWarwick’s quarrels with Edward IV begin; forms alliance with Louis XI
1470 A.DWarwick turns Lancastrian: he defeats Edward IV and restores Henry VI
1471 A.DBattle of Barnet. Edward IV defeats and kills Warwick; Henry VI dies, probably murdered in the Tower of London
1475 A.DEdward IV invades France; Peace of Piequigny between England and France
1476 A.DWilliam Caxton sets up printing press at Westminster
1483 A.DDeath of Edward IV; Edward V, King of England; he is deposed by his uncle, Richard Duke of Gloucester; Richard III, King of England (to 1485); Edward V and his brother are murdered in the Tower of London
1484 A.DCaxton prints Morte D’Arthur, the poetic collection of legends about King Arthur compiled by Sir Thomas Malory
1485 A.DBattle of Bosworth Field: Henry Tudor, with men, money and arms provided by Charles VIII of France, defeats and kills Richard III in the decisive (but not final) battle of the Wars of the Roses.
1486 A.DHenry VII (Tudor) married Elizabeth of York uniting houses of York and Lancaster.
1486 A.DHenry VII joins the Holy League; commercial treaty between England and Netherlands.
1487 A.DBattle of Stoke Field: In final engagement of the Wars of the Roses, Henry VII, defeats Yorkist army "led" by Lambert Simnel (who was impersonating Edward, the nephew of Edward IV, the only plausible royal alternative to Henry, who was confined in the Tower of London).
1497 A.DJohn Cabot discovers Newfoundland
1502 A.DMargaret, daughter of Henry VII, marries James IV of Scotland.
1509 A.DHenry VIII, becomes king.
1513 A.DBattle of Flodden Field (fought at Flodden Edge, Northumberland) in which invading Scots are defeated by the English under their commander, 70 year old Thomas Howard, Earl of Surrey; James IV of Scotland is killed.
1515 A.DThomas Wolsey, Archbisop of York, is made Lord Chancellor of England and Cardinal
1517 A.DThe Protestant Reformation begins; Martin Luther nails his "95 Theses" against the Catholic practice of selling indulgences, on the church door at Wittenberg
1520 A.DField of Cloth of Gold: Francois I of France meets Henry VIII but fails to gain his support against Holy Roman Emperor, Charles V
1521 A.DHenry VIII receives the title "Defender of the Faith" from Pope Leo X for his opposition to Luther
1529 A.DHenry VIII dismisses Lord Chancellor Thomas Wolsey for failing to obtain the Pope’s consent to his divorce from Catherine of Aragon; Sir Thomas More appointed Lord Chancellor; Henry VIII summons the "Reformation Parliament" and begins to cut the ties with the Church of Rome
1530 A.DThomas Wolsey dies
1532 A.DSir Thomas More resigns over the question of Henry VIII’s divorce
1533 A.DHenry VIII marries Anne Boleyn and is excommunicated by Pope Clement VII; Thomas Cranmer appointed Archbishop of Canterbury
1534 A.DAct of Supremacy: Henry VIII declared supreme head of the Church of England
1535 A.DSir Thomas More is beheaded in Tower of London for failing to take the Oath of Supremacy
1536 A.DAnne Boleyn is beheaded; Henry VIII marries Jane Seymour; dissolution of monasteries in England begins under the direction of Thomas Cromwell, completed in 1539.
1537 A.DJane Seymour dies after the birth of a son, the future Edward VI
1539 A.DDissolution of Glastonbury Abbey; buildings torched and looted by king’s men; Abbot Richard Whiting is executed by hanging atop Glastonbury Tor.
1540 A.DHenry VIII marries Anne of Cleves following negotiations by Thomas Cromwell; Henry divorces Anne of Cleves and marries Catherine Howard; Thomas Cromwell executed on charge of treason
1542 A.DCatherine Howard is executed
1543 A.DHenry VIII marries Catherine Parr; alliance between Henry and Charles V (Holy Roman Emperor) against Scotland and France
1544 A.DHenry VIII and Charles V invade France
1547 A.DEdward VI, King of England): Duke of Somerset acts as Protector
1549 A.DIntroduction of uniform Protestant service in England based on Edward VI’s Book of Common Prayer
1550 A.DFall of Duke of Somerset:; Duke of Northumberland succeeds as Protector
1551 A.DArchbishop Cranmer publishes Forty-two Articles of religion
1553 A.DOn death of Edward VI, Lady Jane Grey proclaimed queen of England by Duke of Northumberland, her reign lasts nine days; Mary I, daughter of Henry VIII and Catherine of Aragon, Queen of England (to 1558); Restoration of Roman Catholic bishops in England
1554 A.DExecution of Lady Jane Grey
1555 A.DEngland returns to Roman Catholicism: Protestants are persecuted and about 300, including Cranmer, are burned at the stake
1558 A.DEngland loses Calais, last English possession in France; Death of Mary I; Elizabeth I, daughter of Henry VIII and Anne Boleyn, becomes Queen; Repeal of Catholic legislation in England
1560 A.DTreaty of Berwick between Elizabeth I and Scottish reformers; Treaty of Edinburgh among England, France, and Scotland
1563 A.DThe Thirty-nine Articles, which complete establishment of the Anglican Church
1564 A.DPeace of Troyes between England and France
1567 A.DMurder of Lord Darnley, husband of Mary Queen of Scots, probably by Earl of Bothwell; Mary Queen of Scots marries Bothwell, is imprisoned, and forced to abdicate; James VI, King of Scotland
1568 A.DMary Queen of Scots escapes to England and is imprisoned by Elizabeth I at Fotheringay Castle
1577 A.DAlliance between England and Netherlands; Francis Drake sails around the world (to 1580)
1584 A.DWilliam of Orange is murdered and England sends aid to the Netherlands; 1586 Expedition of Sir Francis Drake to the West Indies; Conspiracy against Elizabeth I involving Mary Queen of Scots
1587 A.DExecution of Mary Queen of Scots; England at war with Spain; Drake destroys Spanish fleet at Cadiz
1588 A.DThe Spanish Armada is defeated by the English fleet under Lord Howard of Effingham, Sir Francis Drake, and Sir John Hawkins: war between Spain and England continues until 1603
1597 A.DIrish rebellion under Hugh O’Neill, Earl of Tyrone (finally put down 1601)
1600 A.DElizabeth I grants charter to East India Company
1601 A.DElizabethan Poor Law charges the parishes with providing for the needy; Essex attempts rebellion, and is executed
1603 A.DElizabeth dies; James VI of Scotland becomes James I of England
1604 A.DHampton Court Conference: no relaxation by the Church towards Puritans; James bans Jesuits; England and Spain make peace
1605 A.DGunpowder Plot; Guy Fawkes and other Roman Catholic conspirators fail in attempt to blow up Parliament and James I.
1607 A.DParliament rejects proposals for union between England and Scotland; colony of Virginia is founded at Jamestown by John Smith; Henry Hudson begins voyage to eastern Greenland and Hudson River
1610 A.DHudson Bay discovered
1611 A.DJames I’s authorized version (King James Version) of the Bible is completed; English and Scottish Protestant colonists settle in Ulster
1614 A.DJames I dissolves the "Addled Parliament" which has failed to pass any legislation
1618 A.DThirty Years’ War begins, lasts until 1648
1620 A.DPilgrims land at Plymouth Rock on Cape Cod, Massachusetts, in the "Mayflower"; found New Plymouth
1622 A.DJames I dissolves Parliament for asserting its right to debate foreign affairs
1624 A.DAlliance between James I and France; Parliament votes for war against Spain; Virginia becomes crown colony
1625 A.DCharles I, King of England (to 1649); Charles I marries Henrietta Maria, sister of Louis XIII of France; dissolves Parliament which fails to vote him money
1628 A.DPetition of Right; Charles I forced to accept Parliament’s statement of civil rights in return for finances
1629 A.DCharles I dissolves Parliament and rules personally until 1640
1630 A.DEngland makes peace with France and Spain
1639 A.DFirst Bishops’ War between Charles I and the Scottish Church; ends with Pacification of Dunse
1640 A.DCharles I summons the "Short " Parliament ; dissolved for refusal to grant money; Second Bishops’ War; ends with Treaty of Ripon; The Long Parliament begins.
1641 A.DTriennial Act requires Parliament to be summoned every three years; Star Chamber and High Commission abolished by Parliament; Catholics in Ireland revolt; some 30,000 Protestants massacred; Grand Remonstrance of Parliament to Charles I
1642 A.DCharles I fails in attempt to arrest five members of Parliament and rejects Parliament’s Nineteen Propositions; Civil War (until 1645) begins with battle of Edgehill between Cavaliers (Royalists) and Roundheads (Parliamentarians)
1643 A.DSolemn League and Covenant is signed by Parliament
1644 A.DBattle of Marston Moor; Oliver Cromwell defeats Prince Rupert
1645 A.DFormation of Cromwell’s New Model Army; Battle of Naseby; Charles I defeated by Parliamentary forces
1646 A.DCharles I surrenders to the Scots
1647 A.DScots surrender Charles I to Parliament; he escapes to the Isle of Wright; makes secret treaty with Scots.
1648 A.DScots invade England and are defeated by Cromwell at battle of Preston Pride’s Purge: Presbyterians expelled from Parliament (known as the Rump Parliament); Treaty of Westphalia ends Thirty Years’ War
1649 A.DCharles I is tried and executed; The Commonwealth, in which ; England is governed as a republic, is established and lasts until 1660; Cromwell harshly suppresses Catholic rebellions in Ireland
1650 A.DCharles II lands in Scotland; is proclaimed king.
1651 A.DCharles II invades England and is defeated at Battle of Worcester; Charles escapes to France; First Navigation Act, England gains virtual monopoly of foreign trade
1653 A.DCromwell dissolves the "Rump" and becomes Lord Protector
1654 A.DTreaty of Westminster between England and Dutch Republic
1655 A.DEngland divided into 12 military districts by Cromwell; seizes Jamaica from Spain
1656 A.DWar with Spain (until 1659)
1658 A.DOliver Cromwell dies; succeeded as Lord Protector by son Richard; Battle of the Dunes, England and France defeat Spain; England gains Dunkirk
1659 A.DRichard Cromwell forced to resign by the army; "Rump" Parliament restored
1660 A.DConvention Parliament restores Charles II to throne
1661 A.DClarendon Code; "Cavalier" Parliament of Charles II passes series of repressive laws against Nonconformists; English acquire Bombay
1662 A.DAct of Uniformity passed in England
1664 A.DEngland siezes New Amsterdam from the Dutch, change name to New York
1665 A.DGreat Plague in London
1666 A.DGreat Fire of London
1667 A.DDutch fleet defeats the English in Medway river; treaties of Breda among Netherlands, England, France, and Denmark
1668 A.DTriple Alliance of England, Netherlands, and Sweden against France
1670 A.DSecret Treaty of Dover between Charles II of England and Louis XIV of France to restore Roman Catholicism to England; Hudson’s Bay Company founded
1672 A.DThird Anglo-Dutch war (until 1674); William III (of Orange) becomes ruler of Netherlands
1673 A.DTest Act aims to deprive English Roman Catholics and Nonconformists of public office
1674 A.DTreaty of Westminster between England and the Netherlands
1677 A.DWilliam III, ruler of the Netherlands, marries Mary, daughter of James, Duke of York, heir to the English throne
1678 A.D’Popish Plot’ in England; Titus Oates falsely alleges a Catholic plot to murder Charles II
1679 A.DAct of Habeas Corpus passed, forbidding imprisonment without trial; Parliament’s Bill of Exclusion against the Roman Catholic Duke of York blocked by Charles II; Parliament dismissed; Charles II rejects petitions calling for a new Parliament; petitioners become known as Whigs; their opponents (royalists) known as Tories
1681 A.DWhigs reintroduce Exclusion Bill; Charles II dissolves Parliament
1685 A.DJames II of England and VII of Scotland (to 1688); rebellion by Charles II’s illegitimate son, the Duke of Monmouth, against James II is put down
1686 A.DJames II disregards Test Act; Roman Catholics appointed to public office
1687 A.DJames II issues Declaration of Liberty of Conscience, extends toleration to all religions
1688 A.DEngland’s ’Glorious Revolution’; William III of Orange is invited to save England from Roman Catholicism, lands in England, James II flees to France
1689 A.DConvention Parliament issues Bill of Rights; establishes a constitutional monarchy in Britain; bars Roman Catholics from the throne; William III and Mary II become joint monarchs of England and Scotland (to1694), Toleration Act grants freedom of worship to dissenters in England; Grand Alliance of the League of Augsburg, England, and the Netherlands
1701 A.DJames II dies in France. Act of Settlement directs succession, should Anne die childless, to the (Protestant) House of Hanover--unless "the Old Pretender," James (son of James II) or, later, Bonnie Prince Charlie, "the Young Pretender," would ! abjure Roman Catholicism.
1707 A.DAct of Union between Scotland and England.
1714 A.DAnne dies; Dynastic crisis; George I (of Hanover) succeeds unopposed.
1715 A.DJacobite rebellion.
1720 A.DCharles Edward Stuart (a.k.a. Bonnie Prince Charlie or the Young Pretender) born in France to James (the Old Pretender).
1721-42 A.DRobert Walpole Prime Minister.
1727 A.DGeorge I dies; George II crowned.
1733 A.DJohn Kay’s flying shuttle.
1745 A.DJacobite rising in support of Bonnie Prince Charlie.
1754 A.DAnglo-French war begins in North America.
1756-63 A.DSeven Years’ War.
1757 A.DClive captures India from the French.
1758 A.DFirst threshing machine.
1759 A.DBritish Museum opens.
1760 A.DGeorge II dies; his grandson crowned George III.
French surrender Montreal to the British.
Wedgwood opens pottery works.
1763 A.DTreaty of Paris ends the Seven Years’ War. France cedes Canada and the Mississippi Valley to Britain.
1764 A.DHargreaves invents the spinning jenny.
1766 A.DJames "the Old Pretender" dies in France.
1769 A.DArkwright invents a spinning machine.
1773 A.DBoston Tea Party.
1775 A.DAmerican Revolution begins.
Watt’s first efficient steam engine.
1776 A.DAmerican colonies declare their independence.
1783 A.DPeace treaty signed in Paris between Great Britain and the United States.
1785 A.DCartwright builds power loom.
1788 A.DBonnie Prince Charlie dies in France.
1801 A.DUnion of Great Britain and Ireland.
1805 A.DBattle of Trafalgar.
1811 A.DPrince of Wales named Regent to act for George III, now insane.
1811-12 A.DLuddite riots in the North and the Midlands. Laborers attack factories and break up the machines which they fear will replace them.
1812-14 A.DWar of 1812 between England and the United States.
1814 A.DTreaty of Ghent ends Anglo-U.S. War.
England and allies invade France.
Napoleon exiled to Elba.
1815 A.DNapoleon escapes Elba; begins the "Hundred Days."
Battle of Waterloo; Napoleon exiled to St. Helena in the South Atlantic.
Corn Laws passed.
1820 A.DGeorge III dies; succeeded by Prince Regent as George IV. Cato Street Conspiracy
1922 A.DIrish Free State established.
1829 A.DCatholic Emancipation Act.
Peel establishes the Metropolitan Police.
1830 A.DGeorge IV dies; his brother William IV succeeds.
Manchester - Liverpool Railway (first in England).
1832 A.Dst Reform Bill: adds £10/year householders to the voting rolls and reapportions Parliamentary representation much more fairly, doing away with most "rotten" and "pocket" boroughs. Adds 217,000 voters to an electorate of 435,000.
1833 A.DSlavery abolished throughout the British Empire.
Factory Act.
1834 A.DNew Poor Law.
Houses of Parliament burn down.
1837 A.DWilliam IV dies; succeeded by his niece, Victoria.
1840 A.DQueen Victoria marries her cousin Albert, who becomes Prince Consort.
Penny post started.
S.F.B. Morse invents the Telegraph.
Grammar Schools Act.
1842 A.DCopyright Act
1845-6 A.DPotato Failure in Europe; starvation in Ireland.
1850 A.DTelegraph cable laid under English Channel.
1851 A.DGreat Exhibition ("Crystal Palace").
1855 A.DLivingston discovers Victoria Falls.
1858 A.DFirst Atlantic cable laid
1861 A.DAlbert dies; Victoria retires into mourning.
1864 A.DGeneva Convention establishes Red Cross.
1866 A.DTelegraph cable laid under the Atlantic.
1867 A.DSecond Reform Bill: enfranchises many workingmen; adds 938,000 to an electorate of 1,057,000 in England and Wales. (Disraeli’s legislation)
1876 A.DVictoria named Empress of India.
1880 A.DWar with Transvaal.
1884-5 A.DThird Reform Act and Redistribution Act extend vote to agricultural workers; electorate tripled.
1885 A.DFall of Khartoum.
1886 A.DFirst (Irish) Home Rule bill rejected.
1887 A.DQueen Victoria’s Golden Jubilee.
1897 A.DVictoria’s Diamond Jubilee.
1899-1902 A.DBoer war.
1901 A.DVictoria dies; Edward Prince of Wales succeeds.
1914-18 A.DThe "Great War" (World War I).
1916 A.DEaster Rising in Dublin.
1938 A.DChamberlain cedes Czech territory to Hitler at Munich.
1939-45 A.DWorld War II.
1940 A.DBattle of Britain.
The battle of Britain was the attempt by the German Luftwaffe to gain air superiority over the Royal Air Force (RAF), before a planned sea and airborne invasion of Britain (Operation Sealion).
The failure of Nazi Germany to destroy Britain's air forces to allow for an invasion or to break the spirit of either the British government or people is widely considered the Third Reich's first major defeat.
1947 A.DBritain’s coal industry is nationalised
1947 A.DIndia gains independence from Britain
1948 A.DNational Health Service is established
1949 A.DRepublic of Ireland comes into being
1950 A.DBritish troops arrive to support US forces in the Korean War
1951 A.DConservatives under Winston Churchill win the general election
1952 A.DElizabeth II succeeds her father, George VI. 6 February 1952
1953 A.DWatson and Crick publish their discovery of the structure of DNA
1955 A.DWinston Churchill retires as prime minister
1955 A.DCommercial television starts with the first ITV broadcast
1956 A.D’Cambridge spies’ surface in Moscow after disappearing in 1951
1956 A.DBritain switches on its first nuclear power station
1956 A.DBritain and France invade Egypt after nationalisation of the Suez Canal
1957 A.DBritain tests its first hydrogen bomb
1958 A.DMotorway system opens with the M6 Preston bypass
1965 A.DComprehensive education system is initiated
1965 A.DDeath penalty is abolished
1966 A.DEngland win the football World Cup
1967 A.DAbortion and homosexuality are legalised
1969 A.DConcorde, the world’s first supersonic airliner, makes its maiden flight
1971 A.DDecimalised currency replaces ’pounds, shillings and pence’
1973 A.DBritain joins the European Economic Community
1978 A.DWorld’s first test-tube baby is born in Oldham
1978/79 A.DStrikes paralyse Britain during the so-called ’Winter of Discontent’
1979 A.DConservative Margaret Thatcher becomes Britain’s first female prime minister
1979 A.DIRA kill the Queen’s cousin Lord Mountbatten
1981 A.DHumber Bridge opens, the longest single-span bridge in the world
1982 A.DArgentina invades the British territory of the Falkland Islands on 2 April and are beaten on 14 June 1982
1984 A.D12-month ’Miners’ Strike’ over pit closures begins
1984 A.DIRA bombers strike at the Conservative conference in Brighton
1986 A.DMajor national industries are privatised
1989 A.DTim Berners-Lee invents the World Wide Web
1990 A.DIntroduction of new local taxes sparks ’poll tax’ riots in London
1991 A.DLiberation of Kuwait begins as Allies launch Operation Desert Storm
1992 A.DChannel Tunnel opens, linking London and Paris by rail
1994 A.DFirst women priests are ordained by the Church of England
1997 A.DBritain hands Hong Kong back to China
1997 A.DDiana, Princess of Wales, dies in a car crash in Paris
2000 A.DThe Queen Mother celebrates her 100th birthday, the first member of the Royal Family to reach her centenary.
2001 A.DFoot-and-mouth disease wreaks havoc on rural Britain
2001 A.DIslamic terrorists crash aircraft on targets in New York and Washington
2001 A.DBritain joins the US in strikes on Taleban-controlled Afghanistan
2003 A.DBritain joins the US in an invasion of Iraq
2005 A.DKyoto Protocol on measures to control climate change comes into force
2005 A.DSuicide bombers kill 52 people on London’s transport system
2005 A.DCivil partnerships give same-sex couples legal rights
2005 A.DEllen MacArthur becomes the fastest person to sail single-handed around the world and at 28 years old, the youngest person to receive a damehood.
2007 A.D.Nationalist government in Scotland2007 saw the first ever election victory for the pro-independence Scottish National Party (SNP) in the Scottish Parliament elections. They formed a minority government with plans to hold a referendum before 2011 to seek a mandate "to negotiate with the Government of the United Kingdom to achieve independence for Scotland
2008 A.D.The 2008 economic crisisIn the wake of the global economic crisis of 2008, the United Kingdom economy contracted, experiencing negative economic growth throughout 2009. The announcement in November 2008 that the economy had shrunk for the first time since late 1992 brought an end to 16 years of continuous economic growth. Causes included an end to the easy credit of the preceding years, reduction in consumption and substantial depreciation of sterling (which fell 25% against the euro between January 2008 and January 2009), leading to increased import costs, notably of oil.
2010 A.D.The 2010 coalition government United Kingdom General Election of 6 May 2010 resulted in the first hung parliament since 1974, with the Conservative Party winning the largest number of seats, but falling short of the 326 seats required for an overall majority. Following this, the Conservatives and the Liberal Democrats agreed to form the first coalition government for the UK since the end of the Second World War, with David Cameron becoming Prime Minister and Nick Clegg Deputy Prime Minister.
2014 A.D.2014 Scottish Independence referendumOn 18 September, a referendum was held in Scotland on whether to leave the United Kingdom and become an independent country. The three UK-wide political parties - Labour, Conservative and Liberal Democrats - campaigned together as part of the Better Together campaign while the pro-independence Scottish National Party was the main force in the Yes Scotland campaign, together with the Scottish Green Party and the Scottish Socialist Party. Days before the vote, with the opinion polls closing, the three Better Together party leaders issued 'The Vow', a promise of more powers for Scotland in the event of a No vote. The referendum resulted in Scotland voting by 55% to 45% to remain part of the United Kingdom.
2015 A.D.2015 electionThe 2015 election was held on 7 May 2015 with pre-election polls all predicting a close race and a hung parliament. The surprising result on the night was a clear victory by the Conservative Party: with 37% of the popular vote, they won a narrow overall majority in parliament with 331 of the 650 seats.
2016 A.D.2016 EU referendumOn 20 February 2016, British Prime Minister David Cameron announced that a referendum on the UK's membership of the European Union would be held on 23 June 2016, following years of campaigning by eurosceptics. Debates and campaigns by parties supporting both "Remain" and "Leave" focused on concerns regarding trade and the single market, security, migration and sovereignty. The result of the referendum was in favour of the country leaving the EU with 51.9% of voters wanting to leave.[232] The UK remains a member for the time being, but is expected to invoke Article 50 of the Lisbon Treaty, which would begin negotiations on a withdrawal agreement that will last no more than two years (unless the Council and the UK agree to extend the negotiation period) which will ultimately lead to an exit from the Union.[233] The implications of the referendum vote remain unknown, with politicians and commentators suggesting various outcomes
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